Ирландия

Незавоеванная англичанами Ирландия в повествовании Дэвиса остаётся застывшей во времени: нравы ирландцев не меняются со времени правления Генриха II (XII век), когда Гиральд Камбрийский создал описание Ирландии, тропы из которого будут использованы авторами раннего нового времени для создания образа Другого.

[...] and why the manners of the mere Irish are so little altered since the days of King Henry the Second, as appeareth by the description made by Giraldus Cambrensis, who lived and wrote in that time, albeit there have been since that time so many English colonies planted in Ireland as that, if the people were numbered at this day by the poll, such as are descended of English race would be found more in number than the ancient natives.

— John Davies. A discouerie of the true causes why Ireland was neuer entirely subdued, nor brought vnder obedience of the crowne of England, vntill the beginning of his Maiesties happie raigne. 1612

В описаниях древность характеризует обычно народ, либо отдельный род. При этом, древностью могут обладать и варварские народы, хотя зачастую их древность описывают как менее варварскую по сравнению с их настоящим.

Thus the Scots a lively, cruell, unquiet, ancient and victorious people, got place within this Ivse of Britayne, mixed first with Britons, secondly with Pictes, thirdly and chiefly with the Irishe, whiche after this tyme lefte their name of Scots unto those in Britayne, and chose rather to be called Irishe: and then came up the distinction of the name, as Scotia maior for Irelande, Scotia minor, for the countreye inhabited by the Scots within Britayne.

— Richard Stanihurst. Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Volume 3. 1577

В нарративе Кэмдена античная история связана с современной через концепт «цивилизации»: одной из причин варварства Ирландии является тот факт, что она, в отличие от Англии, не была завоевана римлянами, которые являются акторами цивилизации.

Howbeit I can hardly perswade my selfe to beleeve that this Country at any time became subject to the Romans. But a blessed and happy turne had it beene for Ireland, if it had at any time beene under their subjection. Surely it had then beene reduced from barbarisme to civility. For wheresoever the Romans were victours, they brought them whom they conquered to civility; neither verily in any place else throughout Europe was there any civility, learning, and elegance, but where they ruled. And very inconsideratly also they may seeme to have neglected this Island.

— William Camden. Britannia. 1610

Пример влияния библейской этнографии и происхождения народов на образ Другого. Другой вписан в библейскую историю, как все народы.

In the yeare of the worlde .2436.2436. after the universall floud .780. whylest the Israelites served in Egypte, Gathelus the sonne of one Neale, a great lord in Grecia, was upon disfavor exiled his countrey with a number of his factious adherents and frendes.

— Richard Stanihurst. Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Volume 3. 1577

Древностью обладают все народы, в том числе Другой. Само наличие или отсутствие древности не является отличительной особенностью народа автора или Другого.

According therfore to the order of al other nations and people that seeke to advaunce the glory of their countreyes in fetching their beginnyng with the farthest from some one of auncient antiquitie: so lykewise the Irishmen have registred in their Chronicles, that their Countrey was firste inhabited by one of Noes neeces after this manner.

— Richard Stanihurst. Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Volume 3. 1577

Древность не является монолитным блоком, в ней есть некая динамика, которая обычно обозначается не историческими периодами или явлениями, а личностями, которые должны были заметно изменить жизнь целого народа.

[...] whereupon Gathelus called a Councell, and being resolved what to doe, took a great number of them with him to sea, and arrived in Ireland, and there grew into such estimation with the barbarous people, that for knowledge espesially in all languages.. ... he was highly honoured. For he not only enriched and beautified the Irish tongue, but also, as is said, taught them letters, sought up their antiquities, and trained their youth in warlike exercises, after; the manner of the Grecians and Egyptians from whence he descended.

— Meredith Hanmer. The Chronicle of Ireland. 1571

Нравы современных ирландцев представлены как часть древности: для их описания Кэмден обращается к античным авторам как к авторитетным источникам.

[...] whom Silius testifieth in these verses following to have beene at the first Scythians, and to have usually drunke horses bloud (a thing even of later daies nothing strange among the wilde Irish). [...] in joyning battaile they crie as loud as possible they can Pharroh (I suppose this to be that military Barritus which Ammianus speaketh of). [...] they cast over these their mantells or shagge Rugges, which Isidore seemeth to cal heteromallae.

— William Camden. Britannia. 1610

Пример употребления "ancient" и "old time" в одном контексте.

The ancient Concani above said held in old time the more Southerly part of this Conaught, where like now Twomon or Clare, the County Gallway, Clan-Richards Coounty, and the Barony of Atterith.

— William Camden. Britannia. 1610

Станихерст транслирует здесь мнение (которое, надо сказать, в отношение ирландцев в ходе повествования сам не поддерживает), что варварство населения земли может быть сравнимо с обитанием на ней ядовитых существ, традиционно считавшихся порождениями злой воли и порока.

And thereupon percase some are accustomed to say, ye there is no poisoned or venomous thing in Ireland, but only the people, which is taken to have been said of most men for their brutish and savage manners

— Richard Stanihurst. Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Volume 3. 1577

Жителей Ирландии можно вывести из невежественного состояния, если принять меры по их обучению и просвещению. Аргумент имеет цель даже "пристыдить" обвиняющих ирландцев в варварстве и невежестве.

[...] So it fares with the rude inhabitants of Ireland, they lack Universities, they want instructors, they are destitute of teachers, they are without preachers, they are devoid of all such necessaries as appertain to the training up of youth, and notwithstanding all these wants, if any would be so forwardly set, as to require them, to use such cicility, as other regions, that are sufficiently furnished with the like helps, he might be accounted as unreasonable, as he that would force a cripple that lacks both his legs to run, or one to pipe or whistle a galliard that wants his upper lip.

— Richard Stanihurst. Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Volume 3. 1577

Здесь можно увидеть проявление риторических навыков автора, когда он применяет против своего идейного оппонента фигуру "метастазис". Таким образом, народ, который представляет обвинитель, сам "уличается" в невежестве, грубости и других возможных пороках.

[...] thou shalt understand (good Reader) that Critabulus, or Critobulus, whom M. Cope makes his bagpipe to belch out his rancor, is a German born, as M. Cope says, who seems to be Critobulus his godfather. Now let anyone, that is acquainted with the manners of Germans, judge, if it be decent, that one of them should scoff & scorn the conditions and fashions of other countries. I will not speak by hear ay, as M. Cope doth, but by eyesight. I could never espy nor probably have I heard it reported no not of the mere savage Irish, such quaffing, such swilling, such bowling, such gulling, such brutish or drunkenness, such surfeiting, such vomiting as I have seen some Germans do…

— Richard Stanihurst. Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Volume 3. 1577

В разделе по нравам ирландцев информантом Кэмдена был некий Джон Гуд (Р. Готтфрид идентифицирует его как католика-иезуита Уильяма Гуда), который даёт крайне нелицеприятный образ ирландцев: так, несмотря на католическую веру (с которой ирландцы совмещают языческие практики), воровство является не грехом, а наоборот, не воровать - это грех. Воровство приравнивается к ремеслу, которое передается от отца к сыну.

They account it no shame or infamy to commit robberies, which they practise everywhere with exceeding cruelty. When they goe to robbe they powre out their praiers to God that they may meete with a booty, and they suppose that a cheat or booty is sent unto them from God as His gift; neither are they perswaded that either violence, or rapine, or manslaughter displeaseth God, for in no wise would He present unto them this opportunitie if it were a sinne; nay, a sinne it were if they did not lay hold upon the said opportunitie. You shall heare these Cutthroats and Incendiaries come out with these words, God is mercifull, and would not suffer the price of His bloud to be of no effect in me. Moreover, they say that they walke in their fathers steps; that this maner of life was left unto them; also, that it were a disparigement of their nobility if they would get their living by handie labour, and forbeare committing such facts.

— William Camden. Britannia. 1610

Одним из основных описаний политического устройства Другого является склонность к бунту и презрение к упорядоченному управлению.

But what brought it to this present ruine and decaie? I doubt not but you gesse before I tell you. They were inuironed and compassed with euill neighbours. Neighbourhood bred acquaintance, acquaintance wasted in the Irish toong, the Irish hooked with it attire, attire haled rudenesse, rudenesse ingendered ignorance, ignorance brought contempt of lawes, the contempt of lawes bred rebellion, rebellion raked thereto warres, and so consequentlie the vtter decaie and desolation of that worthie countrie.

— Richard Stanihurst. Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Volume 3. 1577

Станихерст изображает правителей Другого как узурпаторов власти, которые обращают всех в рабство. Такое описание обычно противопоставляется справедливому правительству описывающей стороны.

A thirde cause ther was, as this: They repined at the blessings bestowed vpõ Sem and Iaphet, thinking it necessarie to withstand and prevent all lawfull rule and dominion, lest the curse of slauerie prophecied by Noe should light vpon thẽ as at lẽgth it did. Hereupon rebelliously withdrawing theyr due obedience from their lawfull gouerners here in Ireland, and taking head, set up a king of their own faction, mainteyning his astate to ye oppression of the subiects, by bringing them into continual bondage.

— Richard Stanihurst. Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Volume 3. 1577

Дэвис, критикуя ирландцев за "варварские" законы, всё же признает за Ирландией "великое прошлое" ("great antiquity") и связывает его с искусством и науками, как и Кэмден.

[...] for though the Irishry be a nation of great antiquity and wanted neither wit nor valour, and though they had received the Christian faith above twelve hundred years since, and were lovers of music, poetry, and all kind of learning.

— John Davies. A discouerie of the true causes why Ireland was neuer entirely subdued, nor brought vnder obedience of the crowne of England, vntill the beginning of his Maiesties happie raigne. 1612

Хотя Ирландия не была завоевана не римлянами, а варварами (тем самым не была включена в римскую цивилизацию), Кэмден выделяет хорошее прошлое: эпоху святых, время Св. Патрика и монастырей, когда христиане стремились в Ирландию за образованием. Этот период заканчивается с новыми волнами завоеваний Ирландии в VII в.. Упоминание ирландских святых встречается и в других частях "Британии" (например, в Корнуолле).

The Irish scholars of Patricke profited so notably in Christianitie that in the age next following Ireland was tearmed sanctorum patria, that is, the native country of Saints, and the Scotish monkes in Ireland and Britaine highly excelled for their holinesse and learning, yea and sent out whole flockes of most devout men into all parts of Europe [...]

— William Camden. Britannia. 1610

Кэмден противопоставляет настоящее Ирландии (её современное "полудикое" состояние) и славное прошлое, подчеркивая связь принадлежности к цивилизации не только с античной/римской историей, но и с искусством и наукой, через которые Ирландия могла быть цивильной и без римского влияния.

And no cause have we to mervaile that Ireland, which now for the most part is rude, halfe-barbarous, and altogether voide of any polite and exquisite literature, was full of so devout godly and good wits in that age, wherein good letters throughout all Christendome lay neglected and half buried [...]

— William Camden. Britannia. 1610

Английская Церковь показывается как универсальный образец Церкви, ее обряды следует соблюдать и всем другим верующим. Она оказывается неким противопоставлением католической Церкви с центром в Риме.

[...] for as much as it had pleased God to deliver them universally into the government of the Englishe Nation, it was decreed that in all poyntes, rytes and ceremonies, they should agree in forme with the Church of England.

— Richard Stanihurst. Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Volume 3. 1577

Пример описания религии Другого, которая близка религии автора. Церковные обряды оказываются нарушенными, смешанными с язычеством, а значит - варварскими.

[...] there were before Celsus, eight Bishops married men, besides himselfe, without orders, yet learned men ; from hence over all Ireland, issued that dissolution of ecclesiastiall discipline, which Malachias found in Conor, the rooting out of godly censure, and the abandoning of religion; from hence every where in stead of Christian meeknesse, was brought in cruell barbarousnesse, yea, paganisme and infidelity under a Christian name; for that which was not heard of from the originall of Christianitie, without order, without reason, the Metropolitans at their pleasure changed, and increased the number of Bishops, so that one Bishopricke contented not it selfe with one Bishop, and no marvaile, for how could it fare well with the members of so diseased a head.

— Meredith Hanmer. The Chronicle of Ireland. 1571

Религия автора текста оказывается способом для Другого выйти из варварского состояния, в котором он находится, следуя собственным религиозным обрядам.

[...] provided also that the barbarous people of Ireland by your meanes be reformed and recovered from that filthy life, and abhominable conversation, that as in name, so in life and manners they may be Christians; and that as that rude and disordered Church, being by you reformed, the whole nation may also, with the profession of the name, be in acts and deeds, followers of the same.

— Meredith Hanmer. The Chronicle of Ireland. 1571

Пересечение темы религии и древности. В данном случае, древность для автора представляет собой неисковерканное христианство, таким образом разделяя известных святых, ассоциирующихся с Ирландией, и необходимость создания варварского образа Другого.

Ireland is greatly beholding unto him [Saint Patrick], for it is recorded that hee went up to the top of the Mount Hely (I take it to be a hill in Ely, O Carrols country) where he made three petitions unto Almighty God for the people of Ireland that had received the faith. [...] In our Patricks time flourished many good Christians, renowned at this day, and as an Antiquarie and collector of antiquities, I desire the Christian reader to accept of them as I finde them.

— Meredith Hanmer. The Chronicle of Ireland. 1571

Станихерст не желает оспаривать, что, как апостол Павел, так и св. Патрик, в своё время приносили благодать и избавление от порожденных злом и нечестивостью ядовитых тварей в земли, в которых они проповедовали. Однако дополняет это традиционное видение таким постулатом: Бог изначально и независимо являет своё великодушие по отношению ко всем землям (что, по сути, нивелирует разницу между Своим и Другим), предрасполагая таким образом возможные деяния своих "слуг". Так Станихерст даёт пример того, как с помощью религии может быть реализовано риторической переописание Другого.

In this discourse (gentle Reader) thou seest that M. Cope handles two principal points, the property of Malta and the nature of Ireland in destroying venomous worms, the one he ascribes to ye blessed Apostle S. Paul, the other he will not in any wise impute to S. Patrick. [...] it is not to be denyed, but that God would impart his goodness to any region, even the sooner that any of his blessed servantes would herborow there.

— Richard Stanihurst. Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Volume 3. 1577